From nature to engineering: translational progress in biological, biomimetic, and bioinspired nanomaterials for next-generation technologies

Nature provides a rich source of design principles for the development of advanced micro- and nanostructured materials with functionalities that are difficult to achieve through conventional engineering alone. This review analyzes the translational progression from biological nanomaterials (NMs) derived directly from natural components, through biomimetic systems that replicate hierarchical structure and function, to bioinspired materials that abstract and re-engineer biological design logic. Emphasis is placed on synthesis methodologies, hierarchical organization, and structure-property correlations that govern macroscopic performance. The review critically examines representative material classes, including protein and polysaccharide assemblies, polymer nanocomposites, carbon-based nanostructures, hybrid scaffolds, and dynamic polymer networks with particular attention to biomedical applications such as tissue regeneration, wound healing, drug and gene delivery, and biointerfacing devices. Broader translational relevance is discussed across biotechnology, agriculture, energy, environmental remediation, and surface engineering, highlighting shared functional requirements and constraints. By integrating quantitative structure-property relationships with cross-domain analysis, this review identifies recurring technical bottlenecks related to interfacial stability, functional integration, and manufacturability. Common design rules governing successful translation are distilled, emphasizing hierarchical integration, interface-dominated behaviour, and scalability-aware fabrication. Together, these insights provide a critical framework for advancing biological, biomimetic, and bioinspired NMs from laboratory studies toward robust, application-relevant technologies.